Hunted Like a Wolf

In this brief book, Marvin Meltzer describes how the Seminoles came to live in Florida, their lifestyle, and how they soon became an obstacle to white expansion into the state.  The book mostly details the Second Seminole War, which started at the end of 1835 and didn't conclude until August 1842.  After a series of clashes between Seminole Indians and whites, the US government foisted treaties on the Seminoles.  The Seminoles were mostly helpless observers where these treaties were concerned.  One of the big issues with the Seminoles was that they had become a haven for runaway slaves.  That nearly half of Seminole warriors were escaped slaves or free blacks was a closely guarded secret.  The war might look too much like a slave revolt than just another Indian war.  By 1835, Florida was a powder keg.  President Jackson had already arranged for moving the various tribes from the east and into Oklahoma.  The Seminole proved the most intransigent and attacked US forces in December 1835.  Francis Dade and his column of around 100 soldiers were almost complete wiped out; only one survivor to tell the tale.  The Seminole War was on!

President Jackson dispatched General Winfield Scott to bring the Seminoles to heel.  His plan for converging columns didn't work well in the trackless swamps of Florida.  He was soon replaced by General Call, the territorial governor.  His efforts proved no more effective than Scott's.  General Thomas Jesup was given the command and admitted it was tougher than he expected.  He resorted to treachery, asking chiefs to come discuss peace only to then toss these very chiefs into prison.  Osceola, one of the most effective Seminole leaders, was captured this way and died a few months later in a military prison.  Zachary Taylor was the next to take command and he fought the largest engagement of the war, the Battle of Lake Okeechobee.  However, Taylor was just as unable to tame the Seminole as his predecessors.  Next, General Armistead took his turn, providing the same mediocre results.  Colonel William Jenkins Worth was given the command and made it a policy to always be pursing the Seminoles.  Where other generals had taken the summers off, Worth kept the men in the field.  Though he had some success and managed to nab the last of the notable leaders, there were still Seminoles hiding in the Everglades.  Worth suggested leaving them there, which is what several of his predecessors had also advised.  President Tyler, the 4th president to preside over the war, agreed.

Drawing heavily on John Mahon's account of the war, this is a shorter treatment.  The tone is very harsh toward the Americans, which may be entirely justified.  Clearly, the Americans displaced the Seminoles from lands they had long inhabited and offered comparatively little compensation and bad justification.  Of course, 19th century attitudes were very different from 20th century attitudes.  Every culture took advantage of the weaker cultures.  Such goes back millennia.

Just okay.  Even so, I recommend reading Mahon's History of the Second Seminole War instead.

General William S Harney: Prince of Dragoons

William Selby Harney was born in Kentucky in 1800 and joined the military in 1817.  His family was acquainted with Andrew Jackson and Harney found himself accompanying the great general to the transfer of East Florida from the Spanish to the United States.  Harney didn't see action until the Black Hawk War (1832) where he met Abraham Lincoln and served with Zachary Taylor.  Through his political connections, Harney rose rapidly in rank.  However, he had made an enemy of Winfield Scott, the top general for the majority of Harney's career.  Though he fought in the Mexican War, his career was mostly defined by his reputation as an Indian fighter.  During the 2nd Seminole War, he saw the failures of the European mode of combat against the guerilla style of the Seminoles.  He used disguises, new colt revolving rifles, and riverine warfare to counter them.  Despite orders to the contrary, he led a campaign with such tactics into the Everglades and won plaudits from the newspapers for his daring.  When the 3rd Seminole War erupted (1858), it was no surprise that the military sent Harney back to Florida.  In 1855, he had given a band of Souix such a drubbing at the Battle of Ash Hollow that he was ever after viewed with awe among the Plains Tribes.

Known as a hothead with a short fuse, Harney was quick to attack.  This belligerence nearly led to disaster more than once.  Most notably, the Pig War (1859) in the state of Washington.  Though the border between the US and Canada was mostly settled in 1846, some islands between Victoria Island and the mainland were left in contention.  Harney escalated a case about the value of a pig into an international incident.  His old foe, Winfield Scott, was forced to quell the situation in person and give Harney a lecture.  No sooner did Scott leave than Harney started his shenanigans again.  In another instance, he became so furious with a black servant that he beat her to death.  He fled St. Louis to avoid arrest.  He was eventually indicted for murder and tried.  Unsurprisingly, he was acquitted.

Like most people, Harney mellowed with age.  In the case of the Civil War, perhaps he had mellowed too much.  Having command of the Western Department - most importantly the state of Missouri - Harney was too slow to counter rebellious activities.  Erring on the side of caution, he allowed the Confederate-leaning governor to maneuver toward rebellion.  Of note, he saw that he was probably the wrong man to be posted in Missouri at the time and asked for a transfer.  Instead, he was sent into retirement and sat on the sidelines during the Civil War.

Having encountered Harney in my many readings over the years, he always appeared as a difficult, bellicose, and generally mean villain.  He is often painted as vindictive and cruel, which was frequently true.  However, George Rollie Adams gives a more complete view of the man.  Though his bad qualities stand out in works where he is mentioned, his good qualities are overlooked.  Here was a soldier who was intensely loyal to the United States, had courage to burn, had a keen understanding of the various Indian tribes, and proved to be a better planner and tactician than many of his contemporaries, especially as regards the Indians.

Outstanding book and highly recommended.

General William Jenkins Worth - The American Murat

In his PhD dissertation, Edward Seccomb Wallace researched the life of General William Jenkins Worth, hero of the Battle of Monterrey.  That battle was the high watermark of Worth's career.

The book details the Worth family and how the son of a whaler became a soldier rather than a sailor.  Joining the army during the War of 1812, Worth found himself serving with Winfield Scott.  The two would become fast friends for the next 30 years.  Worth was seriously wounded in the leg and had a limp for the remainder of his life.  He became the first Commandant of Cadets at West Point, a position he held while Robert E. Lee was a cadet.  The man who succeeded him, Ethan Allen Hitchcock, became a lifelong antagonist.  From West Point, Worth became the commanding officer of the newly formed 8th Infantry.  The 8th was posted along the Great Lakes to prevent a Canadian independence movement from using the US as a hideout and also to prevent Americans from supporting the rebels; a very peculiar situation.  He was later sent to Florida, where he became the leader who finally 'won' the Second Seminole War (1835-1842).  The annexation of Texas in 1845 saw Worth and the 8th Infantry posted in Corpus Christi and later marching to the Rio Grande.  Thinking that there would be no fighting and having been disrespected by the military (as he saw it), Worth resigned.  A month later, the war had commenced and his men had fought both Palo Alto and Resaca de La Palma without him.  Chagrined, Worth withdrew his resignation and hastened to the Rio Grande again.  Now he had to somehow restore his tarnished reputation.  He intended to achieve promotion or death.  His standout performance at Monterrey in September 1846 earned him the promotion he desired.  He served with Windfield Scott again during the march to Mexico City, but they were no longer friends.  After the war, he was posted in San Antonio, TX, where he died from cholera in 1849.

The most interesting part of the book is the political rivalry among the generals.  Though often mentioned in books on the Mexican-American War, it is generally told from Hitchcock's perspective.  As such, Worth is often seen as one part of a spiteful triumvirate of officers.  Here, that story is flipped on its head and Ethan Allen Hitchcock comes across as a devious manipulator.  Hitchcock had been Worth's subordinate at West Point.  Later, he was given the rank of major in Worth's 8th Infantry but did not report for duty.  No, he was on long term detached assignment, something fairly common at the time.  However, that left Worth without a major.  Later, when the 8th was in Florida, Hitchcock somehow wrangled repeated extended leaves from duty.  Worth developed a very low opinion of Hitchcock.  However, Hitchcock was a master of regulation and the lawyerly side of the military.  Both Worth and Hitchcock were on the Rio Grande in April 1846.  Worth, who had a brevet rank of brigadier general but a lineal rank of colonel, viewed himself as the obvious second in command to General Taylor.  However, Colonel David Twiggs had only the lineal rank of colonel but this pre-dated Worth's lineal rank.  Hitchcock argued on Twiggs side (behind the scenes, of course) despite the fact that he well knew that Worth was the far more competent commander.  Taylor dodged a decision on the matter by sending it to Washington.  Washington, lobbied by Hitchcock, favored Twiggs.  When word returned to the Rio Grande that Twiggs outranked him, an indignant Worth resigned.  A few days later, Hitchcock requested leave and also departed.  This was not the last clash between Worth and Hitchcock.  As Worth died in 1849 and Hitchcock lived until 1870, history mostly remembers Hitchcock's point of view.  Hitchcock was a prolific writer and diarist.  By contrast, there is only correspondence to tell Worth's side of things.

Unsurprisingly, my opinion of Worth was greatly improved by this book.  Though certainly possessed of an inflated ego - he wasn't called "Haughty Bill" for nothing - he was a competent and diligent leader who could be relied upon to get the job done.  Here is an outstanding biography of a now little known general.  Fort Worth, Texas was named in his honor.

Zachary Taylor: Soldier, Planter, Statesman of the Old Southwest

Born in 1784 and the son of a Revolutionary War officer, Zachary Taylor grew up in Kentucky.  Louisville was a backwater when he was a child but boomtown as he reached adulthood.  In the wake of the 1807 attack by the British on an American frigate (Chesapeake-Leopard Affair), President Jefferson called for an increase in the military.  Thus began Zachary Taylor's army career.  Based in the far west during the War of 1812, he saw little action.  Soon, he was commanding forts along the Mississippi to protect settlers from the various Indian tribes.  He slowly gained rank and was Colonel of the 1st Infantry Regiment during the Black Hawk War (1832).  He came to national attention by 'winning' the Battle of Lake Okeechobee (1837) in the Seminole War (1835-1842).  It was a technical win as his forces took the battlefield, but the cost was 26 killed and 112 wounded.  The Seminole forces lost 11 killed and 14 wounded.  He did not care for Florida and was glad to be sent back to the western forts.  In 1845, Texas was annexed, and General Taylor was sent to Corpus Christi to command the Army of Occupation.  In March of 1846, he led his forces to the Rio Grande and built Fort Texas.  In late April, Mexican cavalry attacked US Dragoons on the northside of the Rio Grande.  On May 8th, 2,300 American soldiers met 3,700 Mexican soldiers at Palo Alto.  The American officer corps, composed of West Point graduates, proved their worth.  The following day saw the last battle in Texas at Resaca de la Palma, another victory for Taylor.  If Okeechobee made him known to the nation, these two battles made him a hero.  In September, he captured the city of Monterey and there was talk of running him for president in 1848.  No one knew if he was a Democrat or a Whig, so both parties courted him.  When it was clear that he leaned more Whig, President Polk - a Democrat - sought to sideline him and sent General Winfield Scott to take over.  Despite having the majority of his veterans reallocated to General Scott, Taylor won the Battle of Buena Vista in February 1847 and cemented his national fame.   Though he wanted to be a non-partisan president, he accepted the Whig nomination.  He was elected by a plurality (47.3%) of the vote, the Democrats having split between former President Van Buren (10.1%) and Lewis Cass (42.5%). During the contentious debates about admitting new states - especially California - from among the territory captured in the recent war, Taylor sided with the North.  Despite growing up as a Southerner and being a slave owner, he sided against the South during his presidency.  He was an American first and a Southerner second.  His political naivete was just fading away and he was starting to assert himself in the political games of Washington when he died of cholera in July 1850.  The Whigs had only won the presidency twice.  First with William Henry Harrison and then with Zachary Taylor.  Harrison died 1 month into office, Taylor lasted 16 months.

K Jack Bauer has written an interesting and informative biography.  It paints a picture of an incurious but persistent man.  Taylor was diligent in building a fortune during his lifetime.  He was one to hold a grudge.  He was beloved by his troops who gave him the name of Old Rough and Ready.  Indeed, Taylor was more likely to be mistaken as a farmer than a general, as he typically wore plain clothes and a straw hat.  After reading this, I had a lower opinion of his abilities as a general but a higher opinion of him as a president.

Recommended.

Distant Drums (1951)

It is 1840 and Lt. Richard Tufts (Richard Webb) of the US Navy has been selected for a special mission with Captain Wyatt Quincy (Gary Cooper) of the US Army.  The assignment is to sail across Lake Okeechobee and destroy the fort of gunrunners who supply weapons to the Seminoles.  The joint operation is hugely successful and also saw the rescue of captives, among whom is Judy Beckett (Mari Aldon).  While waiting for the boat to come get them, a band of Seminoles arrive.  The heavy fire prevents the boat from coming to shore so Wyatt's company must flee into the everglades to avoid being overrun.  Now they must trek 150 miles through dangerous swamps while evading the Seminole pursuit.  The high stress flight is the perfect setting for romance between Wyatt and Judy.

Much like Seminole, this one is terrible on history.  The soldiers are wearing uniforms from the Spanish-American War (1898) rather than the Second Seminole War.  Though the Patterson revolver was available by now, the Peacemaker that Wyatt carries is decades in the future.  Nobody seems to be using muskets, which is the weapon of the day.  However, it does show some knowledge of the era.  Wyatt declares himself to be a Georgia Cracker and picks out Judy as one too.  The Seminoles are mostly played by Seminoles.  The navy and army did have joint operations and saw a crossing of the Everglades from the Atlantic to the Gulf of Mexico.  The Seminoles were armed with rifles that were supplied by Spanish smugglers from Cuba.

The plot is good but the execution has much to be desired.  Like the love triangle in Seminole, this one is equally unsatisfying.  Judy has chosen Wyatt right out the gate and Tufts spends most of his time as a tag along character.  Why didn't he stay with his boat?  Of particular note, this is the movie that had the original Wilhelm Scream when a soldier was eaten by a crocodile, which has proven to be the most enduring part.  Unfortunately, sounds from an African jungle are played to set the mood.

Zachary Taylor, who gained his promotion to brigadier general thanks to the Battle of Okeechobee in 1837, is the commanding general here.  Yes, he really was the commanding general from 1838 to 1840, so this is accurate.  He earned his nickname of 'Old Rough and Ready' during his tenure in Florida.

As mindless popcorn fun, the movie is fine but don't think you have learned anything when the credits roll.

Seminole (1953)

The story opens with the court martial of Lieutenant Lance Caldwell (Rock Hudson), accused of murder and treason.  As such, the story is mostly a flashback.  It is 1835 in Florida and the Seminoles have refused relocation to Oklahoma.  Major Degan, commander of Fort King and a hero of the Creek War, intends to move the Seminoles or slaughter them.  Lt. Caldwell, newly arrived at Fort King and a native of Florida, suggested peace talks.  Furthermore, he is opposed to an assault against the Seminoles as the swamps will be difficult to navigate.  In no time, he and Major Degan have a contentious relationship.  Degan marches a detachment into the swamps, intending to make a surprise assault on the camp of Osceola (Anthony Quinn).  Of course, Osceola knew they were coming and set a trap, wiping out almost the entirety of Degan's troops (one supposes this was to represent the Dade Massacre that triggered the Second Seminole War).  While a wounded Degan is dragged to safety by Sgt. Magruder (a very young Lee Marvin!), Caldwell is captured by Osceola.  Soon thereafter, Osceola is summoned to a peace talk by Major Degan.  Osceola comes under flag of truce and is immediately imprisoned.

The movie doesn't know what it wants to be.  Is it an action-adventure film?  Is it a story of a love triangle?  Is it a historical epic?  It tries to be all of the above and fails.  There are a few action scenes, the battle in the Seminole village being the big one.  Not much action really.  Revere Muldoon (Barbara Hale) plays the love interest for both Caldwell and Osceola but there's no tension here since she has already chosen Osceola when the story begins.  This feels tacked on and could have been dumped in favor of more development of Osceola.  Much is made of his being a half-breed which is true but is not further explained.  As far as history, this story gets all the specifics of Osceola's life wrong but still has the gist of it.

Osceola was the son of a Creek woman of mixed heritage and a Scottish trader.  Though he is named John in the movie, his given name was Billy Powell.  He was born among the Creek in Alabama but he relocated to the Florida after the Creek War (1813-14) when he was only 9 or 10.  Despite being a Creek with mostly Scottish ancestry, he became a chief among the Seminoles.  He killed an Indian agent named Thompson in 1835 around the same time as the Dade Massacre, which began the 2nd Seminole War.  In 1837, he was summoned to a peace conference under flag of truce.  General Jessup had him arrested and imprisoned.  He died three months later in Fort Moultrie, South Carolina.

Anachronistically, both Degan and Caldwell are armed with revolvers in 1835 though Samuel Colt didn't patent his revolver until 1836.  The soldiers marched with their bayonets fixed which makes it very difficult to reload a musket.  There were many escaped slaves among the Seminoles, called Black Seminoles; none are to be seen here.  Rather than the fictional Kajeck (which isn't a Seminole name as far as I can tell), how about John Horse, a famous Black Seminole of the time.  Or what of Coacoochee or Micanopy?  Did the screenwriter read any sources before naming these other Indians?  Why not have General Jessup instead of the fictional Degan?  Why are there monkey screams in the background?  Someone grabbed jungle sounds from the shelf and thought that was appropriate.  Ha!

Entertaining film but terrible history.  I did like seeing Lee Marvin and James Best (best know for his role of Sheriff Roscoe P Coltrane in The Dukes of Hazzard) early in their careers.